A piece of music can be beautiful and please not, for want of being performed with the necessary embellishments, of which embellishments the most part are not marked at all on paper ... [1]

The embellishments or graces which I have described in the 14th and 15th paragraphs serve, in accordance with the temper of the piece, to excite cheer and gaiety, while the simple appoggiaturas, on the contrary, arouse tenderness and melancholy. Since music should now rouse the passions, now still them again, the utility and necessity of these graces in a plain and unadorned melody is self-evident.[2]

No one disputes the need for embellishments. This is evident from the great numbers of them everywhere to be found. They are, in fact, indispensable... Without them the best melody is empty and ineffective, the clearest content clouded.[3]

With the evidence available today, it is clear that the educated musician can no longer ignore or question the validity, of ornamentation in baroque music. For the baroque musician, it was not a matter of whether or not to ornament, but how and where to "grace" the line. If this was a difficult task then, as many writers indicate, we face an even greater challenge now, cut off as we are from a direct transmission of the style. Still, much musical and written evidence exists which can, through careful study, bring us quite close to a genuine understanding and feel for the style.

This article will attempt to provide some basic points and guidelines for the musician who, admitting the need for ornamentation, wonders what to do next. I will not attempt to justify every point with supporting quotes. Those seeking such evidence are directed to Robert Donington's Baroque Music: Style and Performance[4] as a good introduction to the subject or, for more detailed study, to Frederick Neumann's Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music.[5] These books provide numerous contemporary sources for all the main topics I will be discussing. I have also decided, for the purposes of brevity, to exclude a discussion of the French style of ornamentation. While I do not mean to imply that improvised ornamentation did not occur in French music, the tendency of French composers to be more precise in their notation gives the modern performer a greater, if somewhat false, sense of confidence in its performance. My discussion of ornamentation, though to some extent applicable to all styles, is directed primarily toward such things as Italian-style slow movements, which may consist of a bare melodic outline. Because I am an oboist, most of the musical examples I have chosen are from the oboe repertoire. The information given, however, applies to a broad spectrum of mid-to-late baroque music. It should also be mentioned that the notated examples of ornaments, though written in precise rhythms, are only general guidelines and should be performed freely.

Probably the first thing one needs to be aware of is the style of the movement to be ornamented. Play the melody line with the harmony and try to determine the overall mood or affect of the piece. Any ornamentation should enhance this mood, not contradict it. It follows, then, that a lively rhythmic ornamentation would not be appropriate in a sad movement. The performer should also be able to play the unornamented version in a musical, convincing manner. Only with a clear understanding of the original material should one proceed to add ornamentation.

When beginning to ornament, it is very important to be familiar with the harmony of the particular piece and to understand some basic harmonic principles of the time. Good counterpoint practices should, of course, be followed. For instance, an appoggiatura resolving to a direct octave or fifth would be weak contrapuntally, and would, therefore, be inappropriate. In addition, dramatic moments in the harmony should be noted and the performer should take care not to weaken these moments in the ornamented version. Melodically unusual intervals such as tritones and augmented seconds should be handled carefully. It would not be correct to rule out these "bad" intervals completely, for examples of both can be found in baroque music. But the performer should realize that these intervals were not common and were used primarily for dramatic purposes.

The character of the bass line should also be noted. When the bass has the theme or if there is a fugal section, the other lines should be simple in order to clarify the structure.

When beginning to ornament, it is useful to be familiar with some of the standard fixed ornaments common in the baroque period. It is quite possible to ornament a line using only these graces. For many, this is a good way to get started. I have indicated, in parentheses, the names of the ornaments in other languages. The reader should be aware, however, that not all baroque writers meant exactly the same thing with identical terms.

Perhaps the most important ornamental concept is that of the expressive dissonance, exemplified best in the appoggiatura (Fr. port de voix, Ger. Vorschlag). Taken from the Italian term which means "to lean", the appoggiatura is an auxiliary note, usually dissonant and always stressed, played on the beat and slurred to its resolution on the main note. The appoggiatura is important because of its alteration of the harmony; it adds an expressive dissonance, often as 4ths and 7ths which resolve to 3rds and 6ths. The length of the appoggiatura can vary from very long to quite short. The longer the appoggiatura, the greater its effect on the harmony. There is some evidence to suggest that the appoggiatura became longer through the baroque period.[6] By 1752, Quantz states that the standard appoggiatura takes half the length of undotted main notes, 2/3 the length of a dotted main note, all the first of two tied notes in compound triple time, and all of a note before a rest (the main note taking the time of the rest). However helpful the modern performer finds such advice, he should resist the temptation to play all appoggiaturas so precisely and try to retain a rhythmic freedom in their execution. It should also be remembered that Quantz was writing late in the baroque and therefore his observations simply can not be applied as a standard for the entire period. The performer should also be sure to confirm that a long appoggiatura does not cause unwanted dissonances with the bass line as it moves on. This continuing motion of the bass line often precludes the use of a long appoggiatura, particularly in much of the music of J.S. Bach. The appoggiatura can be added as an ornament in many places, but is especially important in major cadences in conjunction with a trill. (Illustration 1.)

The short and passing appoggiaturas should also be mentioned. As its name implies, the short appoggiatura is not very prolonged and has therefore less harmonic significance. C. P. E. Bach, speaking very late in the baroque period, suggests as places where the short appoggiatura may be desirable: before quick notes, before long notes when a note is repeated, with syncopation, when the appogiaturas fill in leaps of a third.[7] The passing appoggiatura, (Fr. coule) unlike the others, occurs between the beats. It may be performed unaccented, slurred to the previous beat or somewhat emphasized and slurred to the following beat. This type of appoggiatura is most common in French and French style pieces. (Illustration 2)

The slide (Fr. tierce coule, port de voix double, Ger. Schliefer, It. accenti) is a three note diatonic pattern, encompassing the interval of a third. It normally ascends, slurred, to the main note. The slide is used in two ways. When played before the beat, it gives a smooth, graceful effect. When played on the beat, a more incisive rhythmic effect is achieved. The slide can be used in fast or slow pieces with the notes of the slide in varying tempos. (Illustration 3)

A trill (Fr. tremblement, Ger. Triller, It. trillo, groppo, Eng. shake) is the alternation of a main note with an auxiliary a whole or half step above. Trills serve two basic functions: melodic decoration and harmonic intensification. Trills used as a melodic ornament are not subject to the strict treatment that harmonic trills receive. Melodic trills may be added where desired, for instance on long notes and may or may not begin on the upper note. Greater freedom regarding the execution of trills occurred in the early baroque. It appears that by the middle of the baroque the tendency was for trills to begin from the upper note. Harmonic trills occur in cadential passages and are closely related to the appoggiatura concept. These trills begin on the stressed appoggiatura, which is always played on the beat, and may be somewhat lengthened. Cadential trills are often not indicated in the music but should be added, especially in important dominant-tonic cadences.

The matter of whether and when to use upper note or main note trills remains a controversial issue. Frederick Neumann, in particular, has spoken for a more frequent use of main-note trills and argues against the "rule" of the upper-note start. Others, notably Robert Donington and David Fuller, though not inflexible on the issue, believe the upper-note start of the trill was the norm of at least mid-to-late baroque performance.

The cadential trills are normally ended in one of two ways. The Nachschlag is a turned ending, approaching the main note from a third above or below, connecting the auxiliary notes to the main note. The Nachschlag is performed at the same speed as the trill, joining smoothly to the main note. The other option is an anticipation of the main note, which is often dotted. This anticipation can be ended in two ways: connected or separated. The termination may or may not be indicated in the music but may be performed in any case. While the vast majority of trills are terminated, this is not an irondad law. There are times when one may wish to perform trills without these endings.

The speed of the trill can vary from slow to fast. Options regarding the constancy of the trill speed vary. Quantz advises to keep the trill at a constant speed, but Couperin states that trills are to begin more slowly than they finish. So there is, then some flexibility in this matter. (Illustration 4)

The mordent (Fr. pince, battement, Ger. Mordant, It. mordente) is a single alternation of the main note with a half or whole step below. Meaning "to bite", the mordent occurs on the beat and does not really affect the harmony but adds a rhythmic incisiveness. The following quote of C.P.E. Bach gives his view of using the mordent.

The mordent is especially good in a stepwise or leaping ascent. It seldom appears in descending leaps and never in descending seconds... Mordents, chiefly the short ones, add brilliance to leaping, detached notes.[8]

In addition, the mordent is often prepared by a lower appoggiatura. The inverted mordent, (Ger. Schneller) which alternates the main and upper notes, occurred very infrequently. (Illustration 5)

The final ornament I would like to discuss is the turn (Fr. double-cadence, tour de gozier, Ger. Halbzirkel, It. gruppo). The turn circles the main note with a pair of upper and lower notes. The notes of the turn are slurred and the ornament can be performed accented on the beat or unaccented between beats. Turns performed between beats are more melodic in function, while turns played on the beat take on a greater harmonic importance. Care should be taken when playing a turn on the beat to be sure the harmony is not weakened. Turns are usually played moving first from the main note to the upper auxiliary, but can also move to the lower auxiliary. The latter is known as an inverted turn. Turns should be performed freely, avoiding a very even rhythmic realization. (Illustration 6)

After an understanding of some of the most common ornaments is achieved, it is useful to carefully examine some of the examples of ornamentation we have from the baroque period itself. Examples exist by composers such as Quantz, Telemann, Besozzi, Jacques Hotteterre le Romain, and, in a special sense, J.S. Bach. Bach was publicly criticized for writing in all his ornaments to excess, so it is with special interest that we look to his music to discover its ornamentation. A good example is the beginning of the opening aria of Cantata 32, "Liebster Jesu, mein Verlangen." The oboe obbligato line contains many of the common ornaments that have been discussed. In the first measure on beat three, the 32nd notes are simply a written out turn. A cadential trill and its termination are indicated on beat four of measure three. In measure 2-3 the sighing appoggiaturas give a greater harmonic richness and increase the sense of longing implied by the text.

Because Bach does write in the ornamentation, it is often helpful to try to derive a simplified melody from the more complex version. I have suggested one possible solution for the opening of this aria. When the two versions are compared it is easier to see the specifics of the ornamentation. It is especially interesting to compare mm. 1-3 with mm. 4 and following. In measure 4 and the following, Bach ornaments further material very similar to the opening three bars. The turn is retained and slightly expanded in the third beat of measure four, leading to the dissonant F natural appoggiatura on beat four. The line then moves down scalewise with the addition of several trills and an alteration of the rhythm at the end of four into measure five. Bach then expands the use of the common tone C with the use of the lower neighbor B natural, as well as opening the line upward to the high A. Beat one of measure six contains a written out appoggiatura and a trill on its resolution. In measures 6-7, Bach retains the sighing motive even though in this section not all of these appoggiatura-like notes are actually harmonic dissonances. Bach finished the instrumental introduction in mm.8 with a passage similar to his treatment of mm.5, an expressive leap of a diminished seventh, and finally closes with downward motion to the E. (Illustration 7)

When performing the music of J.S. Bach, it is imperative to understand the ornamental nature of much of his music. Although recorded in very specific notation, Bach's point was not to represent the exact rhythm intended, but to indicate the proper ornamentation as he saw it. If his works are examined in this light, we are led away from a dry, rhythmically exact realization to a more free and expressive performance which retains the improvisatory character which was surely Bach's intent.

The reader should also be aware of and study the well-known Twelve Methodical Sonatas by Telemann. The first movements in these sonatas have both a simple and ornamented version by Telemann. Most players are already familiar with Quantz's On Playing the Flute, in which Quantz writes out examples of variations on particular intervals and includes an Adagio with an ornamented version. One should, however, be aware of the teaching nature of these materials, especially in the case of Quantz, and not feel obligated to write and perform such complicated ornamentations. Also of great value to the wind player is Free Ornamentation in Woodwind Music[9] by Betty Bang Mather and David Lasocki. This volume contains many examples of ornamentation by composers of various nationalities. It is a good idea to play the original melody line and then the ornamented line with the bass. In so doing it becomes easier to see not only specific ornaments, but also to develop a feel for the style.

Of particular interest to oboists is J.S. Bach's ornamented version of Alessandro Marcello's concerto in d minor. Bach transcribed the oboe concerto for keyboard, adding his own ornamentation. It can be argued that because Bach specifically wrote for keyboard, it may not be appropriate to play his version, unedited, on the oboe. But examining how such a master as Bach ornamented the skeletal melody of the second movement is certainly an opportunity worth serious study.

Those seeking to become adept at ornamentation can learn much from jazz soloists, whose improvisations are really quite similar to those of the baroque musician in concept if not in style. just as the jazz musician develops the ability to play certain patterns in many keys, so the baroque musician learned ornamental formulas which he was able to apply in many different pieces. Some of the most important of these have already been discussed. Others should also be mentioned. Filling in leaps with scales and arpeggios was common, though one should resist the temptation to overdo this. Often large leaps are very expressive intervals and should be left alone. Using a common tone is a good device to keep in mind. The interval of a sixth seems particularly expressive in much baroque music and is often appropriate in ornamentations. It should also be mentioned that frequently in baroque ornamentations, motives that reappear several times are often stated simply the first time.

In addition, rhythmic matters should not be ignored. The alteration of the rhythm of the original melody was a common ornamental element. Often main notes are delayed or sometimes anticipated in the ornamentation. Duple rhythms can be changed to triplets, eighths to sixteenths, and so on. Syncopations that occur in the original are usually retained in the ornamented version, allowing the character of the original to remain undisturbed. Often, though certainly not always, one can observe in baroque examples of ornamentation a tendency toward a growing complexity of ornaments from the beginning to the end of a piece, a "crescendo" of ornaments so to speak. The overall balance of motion must be kept in mind so that the ornamentation makes sense to the listener.

Some of the best advice regarding ornamentation comes to us from baroque writers in the form of warnings against excesses. "It is true that the ornaments described above are absolutely necessary for good execution. But they must be used sparingly or they become too much of a good thing. The rarest and most tasteful delicacies produce nausea if overindulged. The same is true of musical embellishments if we use them too profusely, and attempt to overwhelm the ear."[10] So at least in some sense, less is more.

When the basics of ornamentation have been understood, certain subtleties of style and performance remain. When ornamenting, the performer is, to some extent, taking over the role of composer. He must view his ornamentation as a kind of composition and subject it to the same careful scrutiny as would the composer. The ornamentation must have a compositional unity and integrity so that it makes sense on its own. Rhythmic and melodic motives in the ornamentation should be carried out in a logical manner. For example, if triplets are introduced, they should be incorporated in some manner throughout the piece, not simply used in one measure and forgotten.

But no matter how good the ornamentation, if it is poorly performed, it will fall flat. It must be remembered that many baroque musicians improvised their ornamentations on the spot. Although most 20th century musicians must work out their ornaments ahead of time, the performance must have the same improvisatorial spirit. Especially important to a good performance is a flexible sense of rhythm. Nothing destroys the beauty of ornaments faster than a matter-of-fact, rhythmically mechanical realization. While the sense of a regular pulse usually should be maintained, the ornaments must be played freely within this framework, sometimes moving ahead, sometimes pulling back. It is this improvisatory sense of freedom within bounds that is often difficult for the 20th century musician to realize, trained as we are to revere the written notation. But if we truly strive for this freedom and approach baroque ornamentation on its own terms, with unbiased eyes and ears, we can approach a more authentic realization of the baroque style.

FOOTNOTES

1. Benigne deBacilly (1668), as quoted in Donington, Baroque Music, p. 94.

2. Johann J. Quantz, On Playing the Flute, trans. Edward R. Reilly (New York: Schirmer Books, 1966), p. 98.

3. C. P. E. Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, trans. William J. Mitchell (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1949), p. 79.

4. Robert Donington, Baroque Music, Style and Performance (London: Faber Music, 1982).

5. Frederick Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978). Readers of Neumann's book are strongly urged to consult David Fuller's review of the same in the American Musicological Society Journal (AMS 33, 1980) for a balanced critique of this important work.

6. See examples in Donington, Baroque Music, p. 111-115.

7. C.P.E. Bach, Essay, p. 91-92.

8. Ibid., p. 128-129.

9. Betty Bang Mather and David Lasocki, Free Ornamentation in Woodwind Music, 1700-1775 (New York: McGinnis and Marx, 1976).

10. Quantz, On Playing the Flute, p. 99.

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