(The following reprint is the second of two parts, both of which originally appeared together as Volume 11, No. 3(1982) of Interface -journal of New Music Research, printed in The Netherlands, copyright 1982 by Swets & Zeitlinger B. V., Lisse. Reprinted by permission. All musical examples and figures continue the numerical sequencing of the first part. The oboes used as the basis for all fingerings were full Plateau Conservatoire s stem, Marigaux No. 10213 and 14662. Editors.)

I see this paper as the second of two companion articles for my earlier IDRS paper concerning multiphonics for the oboe (Journal of the International Double Reed Society 10 [1982]: 12-35). These two companion articles present the main categories of monophonic sounds today as they pertain to the oboe repertoire. For convenience' sake, I have organized these techniques into three broad classifications: timbre, pitch, and other techniques. This paper deals with the categories of pitch and other techniques.

Taken together, these three articles serve to present instrumental concepts, techniques, and notational procedures which, in my mind, form an essential part of any oboist's or composer's knowledge today. Yet my experience suggests that a thorough grasp of these possibilities - on the part of both oboist and composer - is far less commonplace than one might hope.

We are at a point in time, I believe, when a paper like this becomes a summing up, for most of the techniques and notational procedures described here are already well established in the repertoire. The aural potential beckoning before us like the Yellow Brick Road to Oz combined with the sobering fact that the twenty-first century is nearly upon us surely provide compelling reasons to secure an adequate command of twentieth-century techniques; without such an understanding, it would be difficult successfully to explore new terrain. But where does one begin? Lewis Carroll provided some excellent advice on this subject, which I plan to follow exactly: "Begin at the beginning, " the king said, gravely, "and go on till you come to the end: then stop."

Range

The lowest note of the oboe was extended downwards from B-natural3 to B-flat3 in the mid-nineteenth century by Guillaume Triébert (1770-1848), and has not changed since then. Triébert developed six types of oboes which became the basis for the modern French oboe. Systeme 4 included a low B-flat key, and this new addition was highly recommended by French oboist Apollon Barret in his magisterial tutor of 1850 (see Goossens and Roxburgh, 1980, pp. 17-27).

One of the very few recent attempts to extend the oboe's range downwards from B-flat3 was made by Barney Childs in his Nonet. Childs instructs the oboist to "...insert a long cardboard tube firmly into bell; play with low B-flat fingering to obtain a 'pedal tone'." The visual effect, especially as the tube keeps falling out, is more impressive than the aural result.

G 6 was the oboe's highest note for more than a century. As early as 1792, the English tutor The Oboe Preceptor provided a fingering chart which extended the range of the oboe to this note (Wragg, pp. 4, 21). Although rarely played, G6 was regarded as the limit of the instrument for well over one hundred years. Questioned on this point, Gillet himself replied that the highest note throughout the nineteenth century was G6 , and that he knew of no one who went higher (Gillet interview, 1978). Modern oboists, however, can and do increase this range as much as a perfect fourth higher to C7. One of the earliest examples is found in Wolpe's Suite im Hexachord (1936) for oboe and clarinet. In the Fugue, Wolpe takes the oboe up to A 6 in a three-note chromatic (Ex. 10). It was an extraordinary demand for the 1930s and contributed, no doubt, to the fact that the premiere performance of this work did not occur until the early 1950s.

[Select this example and those below for larger view]

The difficulties of Wolpe's works are certainly suggested in Milton Babbitt's vivid recollection of Wolpe's dealings with Josef Marx, the oboist for whom this work was written:

Joe Marx and Wolpe used to have screaming fits at each other. Joe insisted that Wolpe was not taking the instrument into account. And Wolpe answered violently that, after all, the composers imagine the new legions and resources of instrumental playing, and the instrumentalist must realize them. (Babbitt interview, 1978)

One of the few works from the 1950s exploiting the highest tessitura of the oboe is Bernd Alois Zimmermann's Konzert fur Oboe und kleines Orchester. Dedicated to Hans Rosbaud, this piece ascends through A6 , although in some passages alternate notes are also provided.

These extremely high notes (above G6), considerably more common in the 1960s and 1970s, are produced in one of two ways. The more conventional means is through a combination of embouchure and air pressure, which requires some preparation. Best managed by slurring, an excellent example is found in Nemiroff's Atomyriades, which ascends to a B- flat6 by means of an intricate slurred passage (Ex. 11).

Placing the upper and lower teeth directly on the reed, the second technique used in the production of the upper register, is most common in Europe. While the resultant sound has an unusual timbre - as well as an occasional lack of stability - this method makes it possible to articulate any note in the upper register without preparation. To maintain a stable sound, however, pressure on the reed must be steady. Since pitches produced using the teeth are sometimes quite sharp, the performer may choose to play fingerings which are slightly flat, adding more teeth pressure as required to raise the pitch. One composition where this technique is helpful is Yuji Takahashi's Operation Euler, which includes seven consecutive systems of pitches from G6 upwards. In this case, requirements of stamina alone warrant using the teeth. While timbral differences between the two methods of playing the oboe's upper register are apparent, to date only Xenakis has specifically asked for the sound produced by using the teeth (Dmaathen, pp. 6, 7, score).

Another aspect of range involves the manner in which composers deal with tessitura. In his Trio fur Flote, Oboe und Violine, Yuri writes for all three instruments in an extremely high register, achieving a most extraordinary color. Another composer, Feldman, chooses the oboe's upper range because he feels it has less edge and is consequently less characteristic of the instrument's "personality. " In his Instruments III, for example, the oboe's tessitura for the entire work is between D6 and A6 . Globokar deliberately calls attention to the difficulty of playing in the oboe's upper register in a section of his Discours III; four of the five performers are instructed to continue to the upward limit of the English horn, and then immediately to change to, and continue on, the oboe. Globokar calls for a forced sound to make it clear that the oboists must struggle to produce these notes - an effort made all the more apparent through amplification (pp. 13-14, score).

Before leaving the subject of range, I would like to offer a few practical observations. I need hardly mention that it is difficult to play in the oboe's highest register; these pitches are extremely sensitive to the characteristics of each particular reed - much more so than the rest of the oboe's range. Since intonation is also frequently a problem, fingerings must often be adjusted for each reed, and the oboist must command a veritable arsenal of alternate fingerings. But, even where players use identical fingerings, the resulting upper register pitches may vary as much as a semi-tone between players. I have found the greatest single asset in the production of the oboe's upper stratosphere to be the third octave key. Coupled with a good reed, the third octave stabilizes response, cleans up the attack, improves intonation immeasurably, and allows devastating - and reliable - pianissimo playing in the oboe's top octave. The effectiveness of the third octave increases with the size of the bore. For players of the oboe d'amore, English horn, and bass oboe who wish to sport a great top octave, the third octave key is the only means I know of which can make a truly reliable and in-tune ozone layer possible.

Contemporary composers unhesitatingly require the range from G 6 upwards. At the very least, the oboist must be able to produce A 6 . Although the inability to ascend higher bars performance of some works, the oboist who can play this note will be able to manage most new compositions. And any oboist who plays A6 can probably venture even higher by placing the teeth directly on the reed - a simple solution which sometimes proves to be the only means of survival.

Because the third octave key is not yet completely standard, and because the first and third octave keys can often be used interchangeably in the upper register, fingerings will show the first octave key unless the note can only be produced with the third octave key. There will, of course, be significant differences in the response of these fingerings from one player to another. Players might consider experimenting with the use of the teeth directly on the reed, since some of the fingerings seem to be most reliable when produced in this way.

Tremolo

A woodwind tremolo is the alternation of notes wider apart than the semi-tone or whole-tone of the normal trill. The appropriate notation is several slashes connecting the stems of two or more notes, as illustrated below by Penderecki's passage alternating trills and tremolos (Ex. 12).



One or more unusual uses of tremolo for the oboe occurs in David Gibson's Violets. Scored for five oboes, this piece consists entirely of tremolos; departing from the conventional notation, each tremolo is notated in one of six different recurring tremolo speeds (Ex. 13).

The composer writing tremolos for the oboe should exercise caution or risk some unhappy results. Low tremolos, like anything else in that register, must maintain a relatively high dynamic level, that of the lower of the two pitches. The composer should be aware of this limitation and - unlike Penderecki - might avoid calling for soft tremolos on low notes.

Pitch Bends and Waver Tone

Both pitch bends and waver tones involve a change of frequency via change of embouchure on a single sustained note. A waver tone consists of a regular oscillation in frequency; a pitch bend is irregular in character, its directionality being notated by the composer. A pitch bend differs from a glissando in that it consists of not more than a semi-tone. The most important difference between the two is that pitch bend and waver tone can be executed by embouchure alone, whereas glissando incorporates both embouchure and fingering changes.[1] The pitch bend is limited to a semi-tone because the oboe is simply too inflexible reliably to accommodate more than a semi-tone alteration via embouchure alone.

A typical use of pitch bending is found in Paul Chihara's Ceremony, where a semi-tone pitch bend is indicated (Ex. 14). The notation of this technique depends in part upon the situation. Takemitsu indicates precisely where and when he wants his pitch bend (Eucalypts II, pp. 2-3, oboe part). Charles Wuorinen, on the other hand, asks only that a pitch bend be executed for five beats (Speculum Speculi, p. 1, oboe part). Ton de Kruyf calls for a series of short pitch bends on the same note (Ex. 15).

Waver tone, like pitch bending, is produced by lip oscillation in conjunction with jaw movement.
The difference between the two is that waver tone consists of a symmetrical series of even oscillations, whereas pitch bends are non-symmetrical changes of embouchure carefully designated by the notation. An early example of waver tone is found in Marnlok's Concert Piece for 4 (1964), where she footnotes the waver tone " 1/4 note above and below the actual pitch" (p. 7, oboe part). In contrast to pitch bends, waver tones are almost always notated the same way - by the symbol (~~~) above the note.

Glissandi

Glissandi on the oboe are achieved by a slow release (or depression) of keys coupled with changes in embouchure:

The combined agency of embouchure and fingerings are required to accomplish a smooth progression. The fingers take their cue from the clarinettist's practice of drawing the fingers slowly off the keys at a sideways angle. The embouchure assists at points where the fingers are unable to manipulate smoothly across a break. (Goossens and Roxburgh, 1980, p. 175).

There is a major difference between the production of a slow and a fast gliss. For the slow gliss, the fingerings between the outside pitches of the gliss are changed as slowly as possible to allow for the partial venting of the tone holes producing the glissando. The fast gliss, on the other hand, does not allow for such careful release of the keys - producing the spirit, if not the letter, of glissando.

Oboe glissandi are limited by several factors. The oboe cannot readily gliss over the "break" which occurs between C and C-sharp in both the second and third octaves, since the player must shift immediately from very few keys covered to virtually all keys covered. The only solution is to attempt a rapid gliss and arrive at the indicated pitch via any means possible, including prayer. This gives the effect of a glissando when executed rapidly, though I wouldn't ordinarily recommend its use. Taking the oboe's "break" into account, the best ranges for glissandi would be between any of the following pitches:

[2]

The second limiting factor is that of directionality. An ascending glissando is much easier to produce than a descending glissando, because the release of keys can be controlled better than their depression. Examples of downward glisses in the repertoire are quite rare; they must be written with great care in order to be effective.

A final consideration which affects the production of glissando is the key mechanism of the instrument being played. Although the plateau-keyed Conservatoire oboe is the professional standard, some older oboes, student oboes, and even some professional models - particularly English instruments - use the "ring" system. These instruments are marvelous for glissandi, since instead of gradually raising each key - which is at best precarious - the fingers are withdrawn from the open holes, creating the glissandi in the same manner as on a clarinet.

The small holes in the center of many of the keys on the Conservatoire model oboe, which work similarly to those of an open-holed flute, are helpful in the production of glissandi. In a gliss from G 4 to B-flat4, for example, it is much easier and more effective to lift the "G" key slowly, and then uncover the rim of the depressed "A" key (which produces the B-flat4), than to lift the "G" key, and depress the "F-sharp" key.

Glissandi are usually indicated by a line, often with the instruction "gliss. " Penderecki offers a fairly typical example of this notation (Ex. 16).

Takemitsu's Distance (p. 5, score) places the note which terminates the gliss in parenthesis - another common practice. Kagel provides a variant of the customary notation, in which an arrow is added to the glissando line, and vibrato alterations as well as rapidly changing dynamics are used in conjunction with glissando (ex. 17).

One last example illustrates what the oboe can do best in the realm of glissandi - the long, slow gliss. Taking the "break" into account, Hatzis' Aztlan glisses from G4 to C5 over the span of six bars at 41 - 60. It then continues a long gliss from C-sharp5 to C5 over the next four bars, concluding with a high glissando from C-sharp6 to F-sharp6 spread over the final four measures of the passage (pp. 10-11 score). Superimposed above a complex rhythmic pattern played in just intonation by a harp, the effect can be extraordinary.

Microtones

" Microtones refer to all pitches that lie between the semi-tones of the 12-tone equal-tempered tuning system" (Johnston, p. 483). These pitches are produced on the oboe by changes in embouchure and/or special fingerings, depending upon the situation and the player's preference.

Quarter-tones for the oboe are found fairly frequently in the repertoire. Microtonal divisions other than quarter-tones are uncommon - one example is Xenakis' indication of 1/8th tones above and below a sustained F 4 (Dmaathen, p. 4, score). Another is Ohana's division of the major second into thirdtones, recurring throughout his Sarc. Both Xenakis and Ohana include fingerings; I would certainly suggest providing fingerings for microtonal divisions other than quarter-tones. Since reliable quartertone fingering charts are offered by both Bartolozzi (1967, pp. 29-30) and Singer (1969, pp. 26-28), it is not really necessary to include these fingerings, though, if a composer desires a very specific microtonal pitch or timbre, it might be helpful to indicate its fingering.

A final comment concerns temperament experimentation. Two works by Ben Johnston which include oboe - A Sea Dirge and Five Fragments - use just intonation. Fingering charts for the performer and an explanation of pitch notation help explain Johnston's intentions. More recent examples of just intonation are offered by Hatzis' Erevos and Aztlan. Fingerings as well as exact numerical frequency indications are given for each pitch; Hatzis instructs the oboist to check all fingerings with a frequency counter to verify intonation. This is particularly crucial in Aztlan, due to the many intricate unison passages between oboe and harp. While the harpist merely tunes prior to performance via a tape of correct frequencies, the oboist must change and adjust literally every fingering on the instrument. No small task, one which, Hatzis once admitted, surely requires all the skill and dedication of a high priestess.

Double and Triple Tonguing

Double tonguing calls for alternating tongue strokes to achieve a very rapid staccato; triple tonguing applies this same principle to groups of three notes. Several different syllables will produce these tongueings. For double tonguing, "ta-ka" is most common, though some players prefer to modify the vowel sounds to "te-ke" or "tu-ku. " Others substitute a " g" for the "k, " giving the sequence "taga." Triple tonguing is generally executed on syllables "ta-ka-ta," and the variation of syllables works on the same principle as in double tonguing. For those who cannot actually triple tongue, three note groupings can be produced by an extra "ta" (or "ga") placed in front of the normal double tonguing syllables, i.e. "ka-ta-ka. " From the player's point of view, all of this can be reduced to one simple but infallible maxim: if it works, do it.

Other aspects of double and triple tonguing are less open to interpretation. Any composer or player interested in using these multiple tongueings should know that the ability to double and triple tongue on a double reed instrument depends considerably on the resistance of the reed. A stiff oboe reed, by its very nature, will barely execute these tongueings. The larger reed of the English horn can also create difficulties in multiple tongueings; for this reason, the oboe usually adapts considerably better than the English horn to these articulations.

On any reed instrument, the second syllable of double or triple tonguing is particularly weak because the tongue does not strike the reed as it does for the stronger "ta" articulation. This explains why multiple tongueings are much easier on the flute which, sans reed, does not have such an inherent discrepancy in the production of different tonguing strokes. The problem for the reed player, then, is to strengthen a weak second syllable. One solution is to find the strongest possible second syllable - "ka" - rather than softer articulations such as "ke," "ku," and "ga."

Double and triple tonguing for oboe can be either implicit or explicit. Implicit multiple tongueings
occur any time a composer calls for speed of articulation beyond the capabilities of single tonguing. While some instances can be found as early as the eighteenth century, such rapid tongueings occur far more frequently in the twentieth century repertoire. In 1941, for example, Wolpe wrote the following passage, which must be double tongued if it is to be played at the correct tempo (quarter note = c92):

Explicit multiple tongueings are frequently written to produce an articulative effect. In Discours III, Globokar specifies double tonguing (Ex. 19); Kagel makes a similar request in Atem, combining a "tiki" articulation with a tremolo.

The ability to execute double and triple tonguing is essential for the oboist who desires access to the contemporary repertoire. Multiple tongueings are highly reliable, though their mastery does require considerable practice. The only problem with these tongueings concerns speed and duration. While double and triple tonguing can be produced at rather amazing speeds in situations like repeated notes simple passages generally, the coordination of rapid tongueings and fingering changes can present real problems at extremely fast speeds. Furthermore, extended passages of multiple tongueings can create stamina problems for the performer, who may find the tongue rebelling at such an onslaught of articulative abuse. A case in point is Simon Bainbridge's Music for Mel and Nora, the last three pages of which must be double or triple tongued in repeated patterns beginning with eight notes per beat at quarter note = (slightly faster than) 92. This can be managed in large part because there are many repeated notes, and Bainbridge rarely changes pitches more often than at the eighth or sixteenth note.

Simultaneous Singing and Playing

This technique was introduced by popular and jazz musicians such as Herbie Mann and Roland Kirk (Howell, 1974, p. 30). It is the result of two pitches produced simultaneously, one played, one sung. These two frequencies then heterodyne, that is, they mix with one another and produce tones which are equal to both their sum and their difference in vibrations per second. The resultant mixing of sound can be called either a subjective tone or a combination tone and, in this case, would be further subclassified as a difference tone.

There are several pitfalls in the use of singing and playing. Most common is the poor choice of vocal range. Globokar, for example, chooses a low range which most women would be unable to sing (Atemstudie, p. 1, score). Takemitsu, on the other hand, indicates a gliss up to G 5, which presents a problem for almost anyone (Distance, p. 5, score), especially under the difficult conditions of simultaneous singing and playing. Perhaps a useful precaution would be to indicate alternatives for pitches which might be too difficult (or impossible) for some performers.

The dynamics employed for this technique are also a potential source of problems. It is very difficult to play the oboe softly while singing. This is primarily because simultaneous singing and playing works best on instruments with larger reed apertures than the oboe. A greater aperture allows for significantly more volume in the singing, thus creating a better balance between the singing and the playing, and better control in general. This explains why singing and playing is so successful on instruments such as the bassoon, bass clarinet, and tenor saxophone.[3] However, as long as the larynx vibrates, all instruments will produce the same acoustical phenomenon. It is only the balance and dynamic level of singing and playing which vary according to the instrument used. The most controllable dynamic range for the oboe itself is mezzo forte or louder. The singing itself can never be loud, since the mouth is shut, and the dynamic level of the singing is consequently only that of humming.

Takemitsu's and Globokar's use of singing and playing represent particularly imaginative uses of the technique as well as efficient notational practice. Globokar asks, among other things, for the oboist to sing one pitch while hinting at subtle timbre changes via the indicated syllables and small accents (Ex. 20). He notates the singing in two ways: "v.n. = normal voice, and v.t. = head voice. Sing through the nose, holding the reed in the mouth" (Atemstudie, Explanation of Signs). Takemitsu calls for vocalization in quarter-tones, as well as vibrato changes in playing while singing (Ex. 21).

Its frequent use in the repertoire notwithstanding, I cannot overemphasize the potential difficulties of singing and playing for the oboe. Unfortunately, the vocalization rarely emerges as more than a muffled groan - and to achieve this limited result, the oboist must sacrifice considerable tone control. A substantial diminuendo is almost impossible, because the combination of singing and playing abruptly breaks at some unpredictable point. Takemitsu's Distance affords a classic example of the problems involved. Even when tone control and the indicated dynamic markings are jettisoned, it is impossible to hear the singing in some sections of the work. For those composers who wish to use simultaneous singing and playing, three suggestions might help ensure an effective result: the singing should be amplified, the dynamic level should be mezzo forte or greater, and the general technical demands of the passage should be kept to a decent minimum.

Vocal Articulations, playing on reeds or bocals alone

Vocal articulations refer to speech sounds or other vocalizations, including singing and humming, which can be executed with or without an instrument (see Read, 1976, p. 157). Two highly imaginative works by Kagel and Globokar illustrate the wide variety of its uses.

Kagel's Atem indicates several attacks beginning with the consonants "b" and "g." Later he requests that the performer gradually open his mouth in a slow crescendo from pppp to ffff, with the final instruction "hysterical scream (always on the same pitch)" (Atem, pp. 4, 6).

Globokar's Discours III, based on Charles Baudelaire's influential symbolist poem, La Nature est un Temple, can be realized either for five oboists or for solo oboe with four prerecorded tracks. Through the use of vocal articulation as well as more subtle devices, the work is conceived as a recitation by the performer. Globokar asks that the performer always contemplate the poem, and that this preoccupation pervade the performance in much the same manner as the symbolist theory of correspondences held that any one artistic activity suggested another. Toward this end, excerpts from the text are included in huge type-face at the bottom of some pages. Globokar later extracts syllables from the poem and incorporates them into the oboist's part; he instructs the player to "whisper (pronounce) consonants into the instrument" (Explanation of Signs). To clarify his intentions he directs:

Employing musical (perhaps accompanied by visual physical) actions, describe, comment on, interpret or develop the association of ideas evoked by the literary context of the succeeding verse.

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Give a phonetic rendering of the text employing the voice (or any artifice) in combination with the instrument to produce the tone colour of the individual syllables, consonants and vowels, paying attention to articulation and vocal inflection. ("Translation of the Actions," pp. 2-3)

The final section of the work begins with a simultaneous amplified entrance of five oboists instructed to "recite very rapidly the verse (always murmuring) and hold the reed lightly in the mouth" ("Translation of the Actions," p. 2). Short pitches are then interspersed into the recitation until these sounds gradually dominate the texture, culminating in a passage where words from the text are interjected between played pitches.

Globokar's system of vocal articulation is both detailed and idiosyncratic:

One last observation about vocal articulations for the oboe: since the reed is in the player's mouth, vocal articulations can not, of course, be managed concurrently with traditional tone production. For the composer accustomed to freedom in requesting these sounds from strings, for example, the limitations of reed instruments must be borne in mind.

Before leaving the area of vocal articulation, a comment is certainly in order concerning playing of reeds and/or bocals alone. Many composers have asked for these sounds, requesting everything from isolated reed squawks and playing staples without any cane, to playing the oboe and English horn like a brass instrument, sans anche. Most of the sounds produced by reeds, bocals, staples, etc., are uniquely high-pitched, quiet sonorities, none of which, to the best of my knowledge, can be evoked by any other instrument. These effects, as well as other types of vocal articulation generally, can be strikingly effective, especially when amplified.

Circular Breathing

There are a few players, particularly oboists, who use a new technique for unlimited breath, called circular breathing. This is not really new at all, but it is new as applied to Western music. (Weisberg, 1975, p. 93)

This technique requires that the player breathe in through the nose while exhaling (i.e. playing) through the instrument:

A reed with an easy response is required in order to produce an appropriately light embouchure. Collect as much air in the cheeks as possible by placing the tongue in an arched position as if for a guttural 'g'. In this way the back of the tongue can act as a gate of pressure for the locked air, while the lip (sic "tip") pushes slowly upwards towards the roof of the mouth, directing the air with strong pressure into the reed. In this way the air in the cheeks is unable to escape into the throat cavity, being isolated from the breathing channel between the nose and the wind-pipe.

While the tongue is pushing air the normal breathing process through the nose can be activated.

This is easier said than done. Exercises should be performed without the reed at first; then with the reed alone, and finally with the reed in the instrument. With an easy reed the knack can be accomplished fairly quickly. (Goossens and Roxburgh, 1980, pp. 169-170)

Globokar and Holliger were among the first to write works whose effectiveness depends upon the player's ability to circular breathe. Globokar's Atemstudie and Holliger's Studie uber Mehrklange, both written in 197 1, are highly technical works using circular breathing. Holliger offers a straight-forward explanation of the breathing process, plus a graphic realization:

Circular breathing: Wherever there are no breathing indications this study should be played without interruption by using the circular breathing technique: without exhaling, press out air from the oral cavity (but without causing a change of tone quality or intonation) while simultaneously breathing through the nose. When returning to normal blowing, note that blowing and pressed air release have to overlap at first, in order to avoid a break.

A more recent circular breathing piece is Malcolm Goldstein's A summoning of focus. Quite different from the European works, Goldstein's piece entails the realization of a one-page graphic which looks like a huge fingerprint. Specific concepts of duration, texture and dynamics are explained in the composer's introductory remarks.

Percussive Effects

The most common percussive device used for wind instruments is key clicks. Frequently found in the repertoire for oboe, key clicks are noticeably softer on the oboe than on most other woodwinds, and thus most effective when amplified. Compositional use of key clicks falls into three categories. The first involves the rhythmic emphasis of a note (or silence) via key click. Giacinto Scelsi's Rucke di Guck (1955), the earliest example of key clicks known to me, uses them in precisely this manner. Scelsi notates key clicks via an 'X' either in addition to, or replacing, the notehead and with the instruction, I "calpo di chiave. " A later example is found in Earls' Doppelgänger: Music for Oboes and Lasers, in which amplified, pitchless key clicks are employed as a rhythmic device.

Key clicks are also used for percussive color, added to notes after their attack. Earls' Doppelganger is of interest for its use of amplified, accelerating key clicks during a sustained B 4 (p. 3, score).

The final use of key clicks is as an effect in itself. Gilbert Amy, in his Jeux, calls for a group of key clicks with the instruction "change sounds and noises of keys" (Repons-schema hautbois 2).

The standard notation of key clicks, incidentally, is:

Pitched key clicks

Key click added to conventional sound

Other percussive uses of the oboe are rare. One unusual and theatrical percussive effect is made by oboe who uses the symbol (*~~~~~ ) to indicate that the oboist must glide his foot around in a circle, and ( modified acciatura ) to specify that the performer must knock discretely with the foot (Ex. 22).

Of course, the larger the oboe, the more pronounced the percussive effects will be. One particularly fascinating - albeit by default - percussive effect occurs in Robert Moran's Survivor From Darmstadt, for nine heavily amplified bass oboes. Written at a tempo of quarter-note = 144, the omni-present clanking of the bass oboe's lengthy and sizable key mechanism adds a rhythmic/articulative component to the work which may help to understanding the composer's description of the piece as "... a tapestry of interwoven lines interrupted by a series of lively, incisive chords, a Renaissance dance emerging from the scrim of some moderately amusing hallucinogenic. " (Program notes for first London performance, October, 1984.)

Playing Instruments other than the Oboe

The oboist is occasionally called upon to play a second instrument in conjunction with the oboe - most often the English horn or the oboe d'amore. Among the numerous examples are the oboe concertos of Bruno Maderna and Wlodzimierz Kotonski. Only one comment need be made here, and that is this: enough time should be left for the performer to switch instruments. Because of the nature of double reeds, it takes a few extra moments for the player to adjust the reed so that it will play. One rather difficult switch occurs in Babbitt's Paraphrases, where the oboe switches from oboe to English horn in six beats (p. 9, oboe part). Fortunately, the English horn entrance is marked forte. Far worse is the first English horn entrance in Childs' Interbalances I. After continuous oboe playing, the performer grabs the English horn, beginning a cadenza-like solo section on the English horn's lowest note - written B 3 - marked pianissimo (p. 7, score). Given the lack of preparation time, it is miraculous if this pitch speaks at all, much less at pianissimo. Being responsible for the single most mortifying squawk in my career, the entrance is undoubtedly a reason why the composer once wrote: "But my dear, nobody, but NOBODY, plays Interbalances I" (letter to the author, undated).

Composers can and do ask the oboist to play instruments outside the oboe family. Chihara and Takahashi, for example, require the oboist to play percussion instruments. George Crumb requests the oboist to play harmonica in Ancient Voices of Children. My favorite, though, is Lejaren Hiller's The Man with the Oboe, in which the oboist must play an exposed ocarina obbligato in the baritone's song, "Feel like a worn-out shoe."

ENDNOTES

1 . This distinction between the production of pitch bend and glissando is not hard and fast, because although pitch bending is usually produced by embouchure alone, in some instances it is also possible to utilize keys, or the rims of keys, as discussed in the glissando section. This is left to the performer's discretion, since the effect is the same in either case.

2. In both the lower and middle octaves, glisses can be extended up to C-sharp by playing "open" C-sharp, that is, without any keys depressed (although the second octave key alone must be depressed for C-sharp6). Alternatively, opening the half-hole while fingering C will raise the pitch almost to C-sharp.

3. Some acousticians would claim that the air stream is being modulated by the vibrations of the larynx and, therefore, the reed is vibrating under the influence of a pulsing air stream rather than one of constant pressure. However, if this theory were correct, the oboe, which is one of the least successful instruments for producing this technique, would be one of the most successful. Since the parameters of the vibrating systems (represented by the reed) are smaller than those of other winds, the oboe should, according to this theory, be highly susceptible to this pressure variation and modulation. In contrast, the relatively larger mass of the vibrating systems of the bigger reed instruments should make them less able to produce these sounds. In actual fact, the larger reed instruments are better able to produce singing and playing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCORES

Amy, Gilbert. Jeux, pour (1 5 4) hautbois. 1970. London: Universal Edition, c1972.

Babbitt, Milton. Paraphrases, for ten instrumentalists. 1980. New York: C.F. Peters Corp., c1982.

Bainbridge, Simon. Music for Mel and Nora, for oboe and piano. London: United Music Publishers Ltd., c1982.

Berio, Luciano. Chemins IV su Sequenza VII, per oboe e archi. 1975. Milano: Universal Edition, cl975.

Berio, Luciano. Sequenza VII, per soio oboe. 1969. London: Universal Edition, c1971.

Carter, Elliott. Quartet for Flute, Oboe, Cello and Harpsichord. 1952. New York: Associated Music Publishers, c1960.

Castigliono, Niccolò. Alef, Komposition fur Oboe. 1965. Mainz: Ars Viva Verlag, c1967.

Chihara, Paul. Ceremony, for oboe, two celli, double bass and percussion. 1971. New York: C.F. Peters Corp., c1971.

Childs, Barney. Interbalances I, for oboe/English horn, bass clarinet/Eb alto sax, and bass. 1961. New York: Composer's Facsimile Edition.

Childs, Barney. Nonet. 1967. In Source: Music of the Avant Garde 3/1 (Jan. 1969): 58-71.

Cope, David. Indices for Solo Oboe(ist). 1971. Copy of composer's ms.

Crumb, George. Ancient Voices of Children, for soprano, boy soprano, oboe, mandolin, harp, electric piano, percussion. 1970. New York: C.F. Peters Corp., c1970.

Earls, Paul. Doppelgänger: Music for Oboes and Laser. 1976. Copy of composer's ms.

Feldman, Morton. Instruments I, for alto flute, oboe, trombone, celeste, and percussion. 1974. London: Universal Edition, c1974.

Feldman, Morton. Instruments III, for flute, oboe and percussion. 1977. London: Universal Edition, c1977.

Ferneybough, Brian. Coloratura, for oboe and piano. 1966. n.p.: Hinrichsen Edition Ltd., c1970.

Gibson, David. Violets, for five oboes. 1977. Copy of composer's ms.

Globokar, Vinko. Atemstudie, fur oboe. 1971. Frankfurt: Edition Peters, c1972.

Globokar, Vinko. Discours III, fur funf Oboen. 1969. Frankfurt: C. F. Peters Corp., c1972.

Goldstein, Malcolm. A summoning of focus, for solo wind instrument. 1977. Copy of composer's ms.

Hatzis, Christos. Aztlan, for oboe and harp. 1978. Copy of composer's ms.

Hatzis, Christos. Erevos, for live and prerecorded oboe. 1979. Copy of composer's ms.

Hatzis, Christos. Kotzari, for oboe and three percussion soloists. 1980. Copy of composer's ms.

Hiller, Lejaren, Jr. The Man with the Oboe, for oboe, instrumental ensemble and voices. 1962. Copy of composer's ms.

Holliger, Heinz. Studie uber Mehrklange, fur Oboe solo. 1971. Cologne: Hans Gerig, c1979.

Huber, Klaus. Noctes intelligibilis lucis, fur Oboe und Cembalo. 1961. Mainz: Schott, c1967.

Johnston, Ben. A Sea Dirge, for mezzo soprano, flute, violin and oboe. n.d. Baltimore: Smith Publications, c1974.

Johnston, Ben. Five Fragments, for oboe, bassoon, cello, and medium voice. n.d. Baltimore: Smith Publications, c1975.

Kagel, Mauricio. Atem, fin- einen Blaser. 1970. London: Universal Edition, c1976.

Karlins, M. William. Woodwind Quintet 1970. New York: Composer's Facsimile Edition.

de Kruyf, Ton. Echoi: canti e capricci per oboe solo. 1969. Berlin: Bote & Bock, c1974.

Mamlok, Ursula. Concert Piece for 4, for flute, oboe, viola and percussion. 1964. New York: Composer's Facsimile Edition.

Mamlok, Ursula. Five Capriccios for Oboe and Piano. 1968. New York: C.F. Peters Corp., c1975.

Martino, Donald. Cinque Frammenti, for oboe and string bass. 1961. New York: Josef Marx, c1964.

Nemiroff, Isaac. Atomyriades, for solo oboe. 1972. Copy of composer's ms.

Nemiroff, Isaac. Duo for Oboe and Bass Clarinet. 1973. Copy of composer's ms.

Ohana, Maurice. Sore, pour hautbois seul. 1972. Paris: Gerard Billaudot, c1977.

Penderecki, Krzysztof. Capriccio per oboe e 11 archi. 1964. Celle: Moeck Verlag, c1968.

Scelsi, Giancinto. Ruche di Guck, per ottavino e oboe. 1955. n.p.: Edizioni dell'autore, c1955.

Stravinsky, Igor. Petroushka. Edited by Charles Hamm. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1967.

Takahashi, Yuji. Opoeration Euler, for two or three oboes. n.d. New York: C.F. Peters Corp., c1969.

Takemitsu, Toru. Distance, for oboe with or without sho. 1972. Paris: Editions Salabert, 1978.

Takemitsu, Toru. Eucalypts II, pour flute, hautbois et harp. 1970. Paris: Editions Salabert, c1973.

Winkler, Peter. Ragtime Grackle, for oboe, cantus firmus and piano. 1972. Copy of composer's ms.

Wolpe, Stefan. Sonata for Oboe and Piano. 1939-1941. New York: Josef Marx, n.d.

Wolpe, Stefan. Suite im Hexachord, for oboe and clarinet. 1936. New York: Josef Marx, n.d.

Wuorinen, Charles. Speculum Speculi, for six players. 1972. New York: C.F. Peters Corp., c1972.

Xenakis, Iannis. Dmaathen for oboe and percussion soloists. 1976. Paris: Editions Salabert, c1976.

Yun, Isang. Images, für Flote, Oboe, Violine, und Violoncello. 1968. Berlin: Bote & Bock, c1969.

Yun, Isang. Trio für Flöte, Oboe und Violine. 1972/73. Berlin: Bote & Bock, c1974.

Zimmermann, Bernd Alois. Konzert für Oboe und kleines Orchester. 1952. Mainz: Schott, c1972.

Zonn, Paul. One Slow Turn of the World, for flute, oboe, clarinet, percussion and contrabass. 1971. Copy of composer s ms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND INTERVIEWS

Bartolozzi, Bruno. New Sounds for Woodwind. Translated and edited by Reginald Smith Brindle. London: Oxford University Press, 1967.

Bate, Philip. The Oboe: An Outline of its History, Development, and Construction. 3rd ed. London Ernest Benn Ltd., 1975.

Feldman, Morton. Interview. London, 24 July 1977.

Fischer, Johann Christian. New and Complete Instructions for the Oboe or Hoboy. London: Longman and Broderip, 1770.

Gillet, Fernand. Interview. Brookline, Mass., 16 January 1978. From Post, Nora. The Twentieth Century Oboe in France and England: Makers and Players. East Lansing, Michigan: International Double Reed Society, 1982.

Goossens, Leon. Interview. London, I August 1982. From Post, Nora. The Twentieth Century Oboe in France and England: Makers and Players. East Lansing, Michigan: International Double Reed Society, 1982.

Goossens, L., and Roxburgh, E. Oboe. 2nd ed. Yehudi Menuhin Music Guides. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1980.

Holliger, Heinz, ed. Pro Musica Nova. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Hartel, n.d.

Hotteterre, Jacques. Principes de la flute traversiere, flute a bec et du Hautbois. Paris: Christophe Ballard, 1707; reprinted, edited, translated and with a foreword by David Lascocki. New York: Praeger, 1968.

Howell, Thomas. The Avant-Garde Flute, A Handbook for Composers and Flutists. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.

Johnston, Ben. "Microtones." Dictionary of Contemporary Music. Edited by John Vinton. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1974 (pp. 483-484).

Moyse, Marcel. "Le Vibrato en 1905." From Comment j'ai pu maintenir ma forme. Volume 11 Comment travaille: Comment Professor. West Brattleboro, Vermont: Marcel Moyse, n.d.

Read, Gardner. Contemporary Instrumental Techniques. Foreword by Gunther Schuller. New York: Schirmer Books, 1976.

Singer, Lawrence. Metodo per Oboe. Translated by Reginald Smith Brindle. Milano: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1969.

Weisberg, Arthur. The Art of Wind Playing. New York: Schirmer Books, 1975.

Wragg, J. The Oboe Perceptor. London: Printed for the Author & Sold at his House no. 8, Dean Street, Fetter Lane, Holborn, 1792.

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