The following article in its expanded unedited original form is reprinted from the GALPIN SOCIETY JOURNAL, No. XXIX. Our sincere thanks to this excellent organization for its interest and permission. Ed.

It is a well-known fact among historians of woodwind instruments that several attempts were made during the Nineteenth century to provide the bassoon with a rational system of keys and lateral holes based on the acoustical theories of Theobold Boehm and others. It is also well known that none of these 'Boehm' systems were generally adopted by performing musicians.

Mr. Lyndesay G. Langwill's excellent article, "The 'Boehm' Bassoon: A Retrospect" in G.S.J. XII enumerated the Nineteenth century attempts to build such an instrument, and led me to make inquiries about the mechanisms which the makers had devised for them.

In the summer of 1974 I was most fortunate to receive a stipend from the National Endowment for the Humanities (USA) which permitted me to visit musical instrument museums in Great Britain and continental Europe. In the course of my journey, I came across examples of many of the instruments to which Mr. Langwill had referred, and was able to study and diagram their mechanisms. Those diagrams were translated into the figures which accompany this article.

These figures are schematics, and are not drawn to scale, although some effort has been expended in keeping basic relationships reasonably consistent. The mechanisms are shown as if a piece of paper had been rolled around the instrument, the keys had been marked on it, and then it had been removed and flattened. The thin lines on the figures which are perpendicular to the major lines of the mechanism denote the joint breaks where the instrument may be disassembled. Dotted lines may indicate either that one part of the mechanism is passing under another part, or that a rod passes through the body of the instrument connecting mechanism on the front with mechanism on the back. A dotted circle on a key indicates that pressing that key also engages the key or another mechanism underneath it, and a square indicates that the key so marked is firmly fixed to whatever is beneath it.

Fig. 1 The instrument illustrated was built by Adolphe Sax and displayed in the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. It is now in the Paris Conservatoire Museum, collection No. 1465. Catalog No. 1401.

The large arrow which rises through the finger mechanism splitting the pad cups from the touches indicates that the actual operation of those keys is just the opposite of what it would appear to be on the diagram: i.e., pressing the highest round touch (No. 1) closes rather than opens the two pad cups which it activates. This is because the key levers are "S" shaped on the actual instrument. The touches lie below the larger tube, and activate the pad cups which are above the smaller tube by means of key levers which pass between the two tubes.

This instrument is probably the earliest existing bassoon which employs a "rational" placement of the tone holes. Its mechanism is remarkably simple and straightforward. The keys which govern the lowest eight tone holes are controlled by the two thumbs, with the touch duplicated so that low E may be played by either one. The thumb mechanism seems to me to be a bit sparse, and the key placement more convenient for the builder than for the player. Quick alternations between Bb, and Eb must be particularly difficult, as the player's left thumb must jump back and fourth over three intervening keys.

The key mechanisms for the fingers of the left and right hands are virtually identical to each other, provided one discounts the "teardrop" shaped touches and their connecting mechanisms and concentrates on the mechanism associated with the numbered touches. For each hand, three round touches control four pad cups in a manner quite reminiscent of that employed by the left hand mechanism of a Saxophone.. Therefore, the pitch of the note made by this instrument when none of the touches are pressed is f# instead of f; f being played by the second finger alone, as if it were a Saxophone c . In the same manner, Bb is produced by the fingering 123/4, and B by the fingering 123/5.

There are three register vents to be operated by the left thumb, but there is no provision for the half hole which bassoonists are so fond of using to improve the notes f , g, and g . It is interesting to note that Sax did not provide any half hole capabilities for the Saxophone, either, although the German-fingered Saxophones built by Wilhelm Heckel do have half hole vents.

I believe that this instrument must have been conceived more as a test-bed for experiments in the placement and size of tone holes than as a fully operational musical instrument. No doubt it works well enough in its middle register, if one may discount the unknown factors of tone, intonation, and response; but its provisions for playing in the highest and lowest registers seem not to have been very care fully worked out.

Fig. 2 The next instrument which invites our consideration was designed by Cornelius Ward and patented m 1853 (patent No. 140) I have heard it alleged that an instrument of this type still exists in a private collection, but have never seen one. The drawings and text of the patent, however, though they are sometimes inaccurate or mislabeled, give enough information to construct the instrument's fingering system.

The keys for the left thumb seem to be somewhat more practically arranged than those of Sax's instrument. In particular, the note C# has been allocated to the left little finger, which somewhat eases the prodigious work of the left thumb. The two levers which control B and Bb, however, are exactly reversed from what we have come to assume as their normal position; that is, the way they occur in the modern Heckel bassoon. Therefore, in order to play Bb, one must press both keys; but to play B. the outer lever must be pressed, allowing the inner one to rise. I can see no possible advantage to this arrangement, and it would certainly hinder passage from B to C. In fact, either the patent or my interpretation of it may be in error on this point.

The rest of the thumb mechanism is fairly straightforward, except that the touches for F and F# are duplicated in the right thumb and little finger, a somewhat unusual procedure. It would seem simple and practical to add clutches to the F-F mechanism which would automatically close the F hole when the F# key is depressed, but the patent neither shows nor mentions any.

The way in which this bassoon is folded is also unusual. In most bassoons, the last tone hole on the larger side, before the tube makes its U' bend and rises toward the crook, is the one which vents G; and the first hole on the small side, after the 'U' bend, vents A. On Ward's bassoon, however, the last tone hole on the large side vents G. and the first tone hole on the small side, after the 'U' bend vents G . The result of this folding is to make the two tubes more nearly equal in length, and to shorten the height of the instrument (but not its sounding length). For that reason, I will call this configuration a 'short fold'. This fold is impractical on bassoons without considerable key mechanism because it changes the relationship between the finger holes and thumb holes. Therefore, it will probably not be found on earlier instruments.

The mechanism for the fingers is somewhat unusual from the bassoonist's point of view. Of particular interest is the ring for the first finger, right hand, which serves a triple function. Its basic role is to provide passage from c to Bb when it is pressed. In order to play B it is necessary for the second finger, right hand, to press the key connected to the same rod which holds the ring, while the ring itself is allowed to open. Its second role is to lower e to e-flat when pressed - an exact parallel of the action on Boehm flutes in which the right hand index finger lowers the b' to b'-flat . Its third role is to provide a half hole for f, g, and g . The 'open' note of this instrument is f, and it has a whisper key on the crook.

Ward's patent provides for fingerings up to c'', and he claims that these notes are made as twelfths overblown from lower fingerings. I have some doubts as to whether such harmonics would be consistently strong and true enough to be useful, because my experiences with the Heckel bassoon have shown me that its overtones do not progress as a smooth series of twelfths. For example, one of the fingerings for f ' on the Heckel bassoon is 23/4 - a twelfth overblown from b (fingered 1/2 23/4), and assisted by a half hole. The fingering (1/2 23/45Bb, however which is overblown from b, (fingered 123/45Bb) and which should by analogy produce f' does not do so. Instead, it produces a slightly flat f ' . This, of course, is only one of the anomalies in the fingering of the Heckel third octave. While it is true that the Heckel bassoon has been developed through empirical experimentation rather than to fulfill a pre-conceived acoustical theory, and therefore is more subject to these vagaries than a more 'rational' instrument might be, it appears doubtful to me whether Ward's bassoon acted acoustically exactly as he expected it to. These theories seem to prove out better on flutes than they do on reed instruments, and particularly on such mysterious and capricious instruments as bassoons!

Fig. 3 Another instrument worthy of consideration is the one built by H.J. Haseneier of Coblenz which is now in the Heckel Museum, No. F.21 A. Its mechanism is illustrated in figure III. In his article, Mr. Langwill mentions that he once played upon such an instrument, and remarks about its shortness (it is about four inches shorter than a modern bassoon), its high pitch, and its hard, open tone.

The thumb key arrangement on Haseneier's instrument is very similar to that on Sax's bassoon, except that the E key is not duplicated, and the C key is operated by the left little finger. The finger mechanism also bears a marked similarity to that on Sax's instrument, in function if not in configuration. The operation of the right hand fingers is exactly the same: that is, 123/4 produces Bb, and 123/5 produces B . The functions of the left hand fingers on Haseneier's instrument are similar but not identical to those adopted by Sax. Haseneier's mechanism controls five pad cups instead of four, and the highest pad cup, sprung closed in normal operation, functions as a half hole, to vent f, g, and g . There is no cross key for e-flat - it is produced when touch 1 alone is pressed. The cross fingering, touch 2 alone, then produces e instead of f, the open note is f; and f is produced as an octave harmonic. The half hole vent, which is generally held closed by the heavy spring holding touch 3 open, rises under its own weak spring when touch 3 is depressed, unless it is held closed by touch 1.

This instrument, though it shows strong similarities with the Sax bassoon, seems to me to be a bit more practical. The layout of the thumb keys is slightly more logical, the requirement for a cross key for e-flat has been avoided, and a half hole vent has been provided.

I know of no fingering chart for this instrument, and thus must guess about the third octave fingerings. Probably, they comprise a series based upon overblown twelfths and double octaves, with corrections made for anomalies in pitch and resonance. I have little doubt that the Haseneier or, for that matter, the Sax bassoons were capable of producing the third octave, and doing it musically, but hypothesis that the best fingerings for these notes would have been found through experimentation rather than through the calculations of their makers.

Figs. 4-5 Now that we have examined the earlier attempts at designing a workable Boehm system bassoon, we may consider the most prestigious and sophisticated attempt at such an instrument. This bassoon was designed and built jointly by Frederick Triébert, of the well-known woodwind manufacturing firm, and A. Marzoli, first bassoon of the Theatre Italien in Paris. A dimensional "schema" for the tone holes was provided by Theobold Boehm himself. Because of its origin, and because of the monogram found on some examples, this instrument is frequently referred to as a "T.M.B."

Four examples of this instrument are known to exist: One is in the private collection of Mr. William Waterhouse in London; one is in the Conservatoire Museum, Paris, catalog No. 510, exhibit No. 922; another is in the Brussels Conservatoire Museum, No. 3119; and the fourth is in the Leslie Lindesay Mason Collection at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, -No. 151. Mr. Waterhouse also has in his collection a photograph of a body tube for a T.M.B. bassoon which is said to have been in the Couesnon factory in Paris. (I did not look for it).

I have been fortunate enough to be able to examine all four of these instruments in some detail. Of the four, only Mr. Waterhouse's instrument is playable, and that playability was somewhat tenuous when I visited him this summer.

No two of the existing T.M.B. bassoons are exactly alike in their mechanisms. They have all been altered to one degree or another, with the possible exception of Mr. Waterhouse's instrument. Nevertheless, the basic concepts on which these instruments were built remain the same.

The bassoon illustrated in figure IV is the T.M.B. of Mr. Waterhouse, and the one in figure V is the T.M.B. at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The chart shown is a copy of the original fingering chart for this type of bassoon. It was published by Triébert in 1855, and was kindly provided to me by Mr. Waterhouse.

The "standard" or "generic" T.M.B. bassoon, then, has nineteen tone holes, and from nine to sixteen register vents! All of the lateral holes, both tone holes and vents, are bored in the back of the instrument, making it unlikely that water will collect in any of them, causing gurgling noises. The touches for the fingers are located, as on other bassoons, in the front of the instrument, and are connected to the pad cups they control by means of push rods, hinged at both ends, which pass between the two body tubes of the instrument. These rods are indicated in the diagrams by the dotted lines passing between the flared ends of the levers. The hinges are at the flares.

The thumb keys on these instruments are carefully laid out and heavily duplicated. The left thumb has exclusive responsibility for the notes Bb, B. C, and C , while D and E-flat maybe taken by either thumb. E is the exclusive province of the right thumb, but F and F may be played by either the right thumb or little finger. If the performer wishes to play a G. he may either place his right ring finger on the lowest of the four circular touches (No. 7) or place it on the next-to-lowest circular touch (No. 6) and add the right thumb on the lowest thumb touch. Fingering 123/456 gives G# instead of G. Could this mechanism have been conceived as an adaptation to the bassoon of Boehm's open G for flute? Rising above the normal fingering for A (123/45), we find that, as one might expect on a Boehm system instrument, 123/4 gives Bb instead of B. and B is cross fingered 123/5. c is played normally 123/; c# is played with a cross key by either the left little finger or right thumb; d is played 12 /. the e-flat is played 1 /4, as on the Ward bassoon, and again, it is reminiscent of the Boehm flute's bb'; e is played by the first finger alone, and f is open (with the low F key closed, probably for resonance).

The notes above f are overblown from the lower octave fingerings, with the help of one or more of that awesome collection of register vents. But perhaps the truly remarkable thing about this bassoon is that not only the entire second octave, but all but four notes of the third octave are overblown from the first octave fingerings! This means that once a player has learned the fingerings for the first octave of the instrument, he can produce a range of over three octaves with only those basic fingerings, and the correct register touches. It also means that those second and third octave notes which are usually played as twelfth harmonics on other bassoons are drawn from octaves and double octaves on this one.

It might be instructive to examine more closely this complex register key system, as I know of no other on any woodwind instrument which approaches it in complexity, or which is designed to overcome the natural acoustical tendencies of the instrument, rather than to aid or civilize them.

It is in the register key mechanisms that many of the differences among the T.M.B. bassoons are to be found. The mechanisms on the Paris instrument and on Mr. Waterhouse's instrument are quite similar, if not identical, and they also display the most complexity of any of the systems. The Brussels instrument has a somewhat simpler mechanism, and the one on the Boston instrument is much simpler, as will be explained later. Some evidences of patching on the Brussels instrument seem to indicate that the original three-vent mechanism on the topmost part of the wing joint was reduced to a two-vent mechanism at some later date. Therefore, I have chosen to discuss the register mechanism as it appears on Mr. Waterhouse's instrument (figure IV), because it seems to me to be the least altered, and to present the best example of the original ideas of its makers.

We will consider all the small pad cups, starting from the bottom of the "wing joint" side of the instrument. The first vent, lying just below the hole which vents Bb seems to be a resonance hole for A, and is not directly connected to the register system. The next small vent, lying directly above the hole which vents B. is opened by a touch played by the ring finger, right hand. It is used for the notes f and g. As the services of this finger are also required on the round touches for these notes, the key must be pressed by the shank of the finger. This vent could alternately be opened by the left little finger. The next two vents lie directly above the c hole, and below the d hole respectively. Their operating linkages are enormously complex, and I will not try to describe them. Let it suffice to say that they are activated by pressure on a touch by the left thumb, and that the choice of vents is determined by a rocker placed under the circular touches 4 and 5. Moreover, this same thumb touch also activates the next small vent up the tube; a double-headed affair which opens if neither touch 4 nor touch 5 is pressed. Thus, by pressing one touch (marked "D" in the original fingering chart), the player is able to properly vent g , a, bb, b, c' and c'' through the agency of four different vents whose sequence is automatically controlled by the normal fingerings of the notes. That is a remarkable piece of engineering!

On the Boston instrument, this mechanism has unfortunately been tampered with and put out of commission by means of soldering the highest vent cup directly to the rod which carries the thumb touch, thus causing the highest vent to open whenever the touch is pressed, and negating the function of the two lower vents. Mr. Langwill states that this instrument once belonged to a band of the 60th Rifles, and I suspect that this particular bit of vandalism might have been done during that period, because the higher notes for which these vents were designed would not have been rendered more dependable in its lower range. The Boston bassoon, by the way, was the first T.M.B. instrument which I studied, and you can imagine my perplexity in trying to determine how this mechanism was supposed to work!

Just above this mechanism lies another two-headed vent, controlled by a touch for the middle finger, left hand. This key does not appear on Triébert's 1855 fingering chart, and I suspect that it is not a register vent at all, but an f/f trill key. Next above the trill key is another double-headed vent, the action of which is controlled by touches 1 and 2. I believe that this is a half hole mechanism, which is opened when 2 is pressed, but 1 is not. As might be expected, it vents f and g. It is interesting to note that the hole covered by the lower pad cup of this system is on the main "body joint", while the upper pad cup covers a hole on the short "wing joint". In practice, it must have been very difficult to insure that both holes were being properly covered. Next above the half hole vents is a small vent governed by a touch which lies just above touch 1. its function is to vent g and sometimes a, and also to vent e'' . Above that vent is one controlled by the left thumb, whose only function seems to be to vent high f''. The top three vents are activated by a thumb touch labeled "B" in Triébert's fingering chart. The selection between them is made by touch 3: when it is depressed, the lowest of the three opens; when it is not depressed, the upper two vents open together. These vents are used for a, bb, b, c', c#', d', e-flat', e', and f'. Their use, therefore somewhat parallels that of the whisper key on a modern Heckel instrument - but note that these keys remain closed until the thumb touch is pressed.

It seems to me that the complexity of this register mechanism demonstrates a degree of mechanical and acoustical sophistication of a different order of magnitude from that displayed on modem woodwinds. In fact, the whole instrument would constitute a worthy study for anyone interested in improving modern woodwind mechanisms - always keeping in mind that no matter how brilliant was the theoretical concept, there is some disagreement as to how well this mechanism functioned in actual use. Even if the mechanism had been flawless, however, the unusual tone of the T.M.B. bassoon would probably have been enough to condemn it to oblivion.

Mr. Waterhouse and I attempted to play his instrument this summer. Using the fingerings indicated in Triébert's chart, he was able to coax from the instrument all the notes up to high f''. The register mechanism worked as advertised. It would be unfair to judge the tone quality of an instrument which was not quite right mechanically, and which may have been subjected to an unsuitable reed. The tone we heard was direct and open, with very little depth or harmonic coloration.

It would be a great joy for me to hear this bassoon fully repaired, equipped with a suitable reed, and thoughtfully played. I fear that our chances of hearing any of the other Boehm-type bassoons is not very good - though none of the instruments which I saw appeared to be beyond repair. They were not badly cracked or dented, and had all their keys. Some of them seemed to be missing their crooks, and it might prove difficult to ascertain the dimensions of authentic replacement crooks. I feel that I may be pardoned for fervently wishing that the economic realities and the concerns of those in official positions were such as to allow museums to maintain their instruments in playing condition so that these unique voices could once again be heard and appreciated.

This report would not be complete if it did not present a group of instruments which were constructed on the basis of a philosophy which differed somewhat from those we have considered up to now. The makers of these instruments did not begin with an attempt to find the theoretically correct placement for all the tone holes, and then proceed by devising a means of controlling them with mechanism. On the contrary, the starting points for these instruments were the standard bassoons of the day, and the purpose of the mechanism change was to allow these standard instruments to be played using the fingering techniques appropriate to the Boehm clarinet. This approach is a practical rather than a theoretical one, and based upon it one would assume that the tone qualities of these bassoons were virtually indistinguishable from those of their standard counterparts. Therefore, much less was at stake musically in their development. The designers of the T.M.B. bassoon, for instance, could hope that their instrument would have better intonation, a more even scale, a greater dynamic range, an easier fingering system, and a more persuasive tone than standard bassoons. The makers of this second class of instrument could reasonably hope only that their instruments would sound like standard bassoons, and finger like Boehm clarinets.

The diagrams for these instruments, by the way, are based upon less adequate sources than those of the theoretical types. Of the three instruments illustrated in the figures 6 - 8, I have seen only one, and that one rather hastily. Therefore it is likely that some errors have crept into my diagrams, and serious students should be forewarned.

Fig. 6 The first instrument of this more derivative type represents something of a compromise between the theoretical and practical philosophies of Boehm bassoon construction. The instrument was purchased this summer by Mr. Waterhouse, for his collection. It is unmarked, but its general construction, key and bell shapes indicate that it may be tentatively classified as by Gautrot. Its lowest notes are controlled by a group of keys for the left thumb which are arranged exactly as they would be on a standard French bassoon, except that the vent for E is found on the boot joint instead of on the long joint. This change of position is made necessary by the fact that the instrument employs a "short fold" similar to the one previously discussed in regard to Ward's bassoon. Remarkably, the right thumb has no duties at all.

The mechanism for the fingers is laid out roughly as it would be found on a Boehm clarinet. The notes E, F, and F# may be played alternately by either little finger. The fingering 123/4 produces Bb, and 123/ 5 produces B. Lifting the fingers of the left hand in sequence gives c (all closed), d, e, and f (all open). It is possible to play e-flat either with a cross key, or by using the fingering 1 /4.

There is a provision for a half hole which is activated when 2 is pressed but 1 is not. It appears that the register vents operated by the left thumb are the same as those commonly found on French bassoons, and serve the same functions. In addition to the numbered touches, the fingers of the left hand also control four cross keys which give, from bottom to top, c , e-flat, and f . The purpose of the highest cross key eludes me, but it must be rather significant, as the touch for it is duplicated for the right hand index finger.

All in all, this bassoon has a fairly simple mechanism, yet it provides a good facsimile of Boehm clarinet fingerings. The placement of tone holes on the wing and boot joints has been somewhat altered from that of a standard French bassoon, but these changes were probably dictated by practical considerations, rather than by an attempt to "rationalize" tone hole placement.

Fig. 7 The mechanism of a bassoon illustrated at the top of a Heckel bassoon fingering chart which was printed no earlier than 1931. The key mechanisms on the wing joint, long joint, and bell are identical to those of a normal Heckel system bassoon. Only the mechanism on the boot joint has been altered. At that, the keys for the right thumb are identical to those of a standard Heckel, except that there is no touch for Bb. The touches for the right little finger are arranged in Boehm clarinet fashion. The normal holes for the first two fingers of the right hand have been replaced by touches and pad cups so arranged that they provide Bb for the fingering 123/4, and B for 123/5. A cross key furnishes another B. Except for a few modifications, the sizes and locations of the tone holes on the boot joint are exactly the same as if they had been found on a normal Heckel bassoon. Far from trying to rationalize the placement of tone holes, Heckel seems determined that their positions should not be altered from the tried-and-true, no matter what the requirements of the mechanism might be.

Fig. 8 An example of Heckel's concept of a Boehm system bassoon carried to its logical conclusion. The original document from which I drew this diagram was a post card which was given to me by Herr Gebhard when I visited the Heckel museum. The card carries a four-view photograph of the instrument, and this inscription, which I have attempted to translate from the German:

"The attached four-sided picture shows a Heckel bassoon with a key mechanism similar to that of a Boehm system clarinet. I constructed an instrument of this kind for an American who plays the Boehm clarinet. The illustration should show the enormous amount of work which was required of me to solve these problems of acoustics, and even more, those of key construction.

This Heckel-Boehm bassoon may be thought of as a preview of the direction which the further development of the Heckel bassoon may take. My house goes to great lengths to satisfy the wishes and suggestions of my clients.

Biebrich am Rhein-Weisbaden
I greet you in old friendship
(Signed) Wilhelm Heckel" October, 1932

My first impression of this instrument is that it may have been built somewhat tongue-in-cheek as an exercise in lavish gadgetry: After all, who really needs two whisper key locks? Nevertheless, the text of Heckel's message on the card indicates that he regarded it with some seriousness as a possible indication of things to come.

It is instructive to compare this instrument with the bassoon in figure 7. The placement of tone holes on the two instruments is the same, though the instrument in figure 8 has four more holes, all of them on the wing joint, which are controlled by cross keys. The right hand finger mechanisms of these two bassoons are virtually identical to each other, and those for the left hand fingers are similar except for the additional keys for c#, e-flat, and high e''; and for the left little finger touches alternating with those of the right little finger for the notes E, F, and F#, which may be found on the instrument in figure 8. One of the most characteristic and important features of the Boehm clarinet mechanism is the provision for playing the lower notes alternately with either little finger, and to omit the left hand touches, as Heckel does on the instrument in figure 7, seems to defeat the purpose of the arrangement. On both of these bassoons, however, it is possible to alternate the right little finger keys with keys for the right thumb, and thus to provide smooth passage among these notes. This is what performers on the standard Heckel bassoon normally do.

For all the complex mechanism of these instruments, their note e-flat is normally played with a very un-Boehmlike forked finger - 1 - 3/; and it seems clear that their third octave fingerings much more closely resemble those of a standard Heckel bassoon than anything else.

Perhaps the most original aspect of the bassoon illustrated in figure 8 is the duplication of touches for the notes E-flat, D, C#, and C, so that they may be played with either thumb. Even though this duplication requires a great deal of added mechanism, and particularly of bridge keys to make the necessary connections between the boot and bass joints, it presents the considerable advantage of allowing the thumbs, by alternating on these keys, to play combinations of these notes with much more sureness, speed, and precision than can be managed with conventional key arrangements. In order for this feature to have practical value, it is necessary to provide a means of playing the low E without using either thumb, as Heckel has done.

It is not too difficult to see why Heckel's Boehm system bassoons did not become very popular. With the possible exception of an improved facility on certain low notes, bought at the expense of a cumbersome mechanism, they provide the experienced bassoonist with no advantages in the areas of tone, evenness, intonation, dynamic range, or technical facility over the instrument he is now using. On the other hand, they are unfamiliar, and may be much more complicated than his standard Heckel or Buffet.

These, then, are the mechanisms for 'Boehm' bassoons which I have been able to locate. It is not improbable that other systems exist of which I have not heard, and I would be most grateful for any new information on this matter.

The question remains whether the application of Boehm's ideas to the bassoon could yet result in a superior instrument which would be gratefully accepted by bassoonists and conductors. Leonard Sharrow, in his article "The Bassoon is Archaic", states that in spite of the fact that musicians may be conservative by nature, the present plight of the bassoonist, particularly in the face of modem music, is so desperate that he would welcome any reasonable improvement in his instrument.

I am not so sure. It seems to me that perhaps the cumbersome and archaic nature of the present instrument tends to attract players with the particular personality traits which are challenged by these deficiencies. In some strange way, then, these bassoonists might well be somewhat disappointed by a truly rational instrument. One might also consider that even an improved bassoon will be limited in its range, dynamic flexibility, and speed of execution, as indeed are all other conventional instruments; and it is one measure of excellence in a composer that he is able to accept and create within the limitations of his chosen medium.

Perhaps it is too late for a bassoon improved in the 19th century manner to make much of an impact upon our time.

Most of the significant technical advances of the present time are linked to the technology of electronics, and the science of levers and linkages which gave us the steam engine, the screw cutting lathe, and the Boehm flute seems to have become passé.

It is possible that the future development of woodwind instrument mechanisms, including those for the bassoon, might proceed along the lines explored by Mr. Giles Brindley, and described in his article "The Logical Bassoon" in G. S.J. XXI. Or it might happen that the bassoon, as well as many other conventional instruments, may be replaced by electronic "black boxes". These future developments will determine whether the information in this article is pertinent to the future of the bassoon, or merely represents an historical overview of some interesting ideas which never came to fruition

Bibliography

Brindley, Giles, "The Logical Bassoon" in The Galpin Society Journal, XXI, 1968, pp. 152-161.

Langwill, Lyndesay G., The Bassoon and Contrabassoon, London, Ernest Benn, Ltd., 1965, pp. 63-67.

Langwill, Lyndesay G., "The 'Boehm' Bassoon: A Retrospect" in The Galpin Society Journal, XII, 1959, pp. 63-67.

Sharrow, Leonard, "The Bassoon is Archaic" in The Woodwind Anthology, New York, Woodwind Anthology, New York, Woodwind Magazine, 1952, pp. 68-71.

Editor's Note: Anyone interested in studying further possibilities of improving the bassoon band other woodwind instruments) should include in their reading:

1. Brindley, Giles, "The Logical Bassoon" Galpin Society Journal XXI, 1968.

2. Corey, Gerald, "Towards the Future{?)" To The World 's Bassoonists Vol. I, No. 2 March 1970

3. Norbeck, Edwin, "Computer-Assisted Woodwinds " Woodwind World Magazine, vol. 12, No. 5

{This excellent article is particularly of importance for its discussion of a practical evolutional development of the fingering patterns of all woodwinds, which in the opinion of the author could easily be standardized {i.e., the same), yet could provide for all known fingering {and holing) variations plus many new ones. With a 'legitimate' concert hall organ operated by electricity now in use at Carnegie Hall in New York, are electrically assisted woodwinds really that far into the future?)

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